Frankly speaking, this is the toughest chapter. Luckily I managed to finish it up. Alhamdulillah... ('',)
INTRODUCTION
Literature review of this study includes
three sections in accordance with the purpose that is to investigate whether is
there any relationship between the classroom management approaches of teachers
and students’ satisfaction. In the first part, definition of classroom
management and the importance of classroom management are presented. The second
part includes studies on the classroom management conducted in other countries.
Lastly is an overview of the students’ satisfaction on a few aspects.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND ITS
SIGNIFICANCE
Managing students’ attitude has always
been the main concern of teachers as student misbehaviours could affect the
positive learning environment (Shin & Koh, 2007). From the start of
teaching experience, teachers usually show their concern about ways to control
their students and to create a disciplined environment in order to have a good
learning environment and classroom management is always mentioned as the most difficult
aspect of teaching. Doyle (1980) also states that maintaining orders in a
classroom is a basic task of teaching as management activities lead to the formation
and conservation of those conditions in which instruction can take place
effectively and efficiently. Evidence from meta-analyses of variables show that
influence school learning and that classroom management has been identified as
one of the variables that have greatest influence on school learning (Freiberg,
1999). Today, classroom management is becoming an increasing problem for
teachers and administrators in primary schools because of changes in
educational environments.
From the start, the definition of the
classroom management should be clarified as to make others understand the
effects of it on to the learning environment. Since classroom management has
various concepts, it is defined differently by various writers. The concepts of
classroom management are influenced by changes in research perspectives at
various points since the late 1960s (Harris & Evertson, 1999). The meaning
of the terms classroom management has changed since then from describing
discipline practices and behavioural interventions to serving as a more integrated
view of teachers’ actions in managing the supportive learning environments and
building community. Generally, the terms classroom management refers to the
actions and strategies teachers come out with in order to maintain the
instructions (Doyle, 1986). Doyle (1986) also stated that learning and order are
the two major tasks in creating the teaching process. For learning to be
achieved successfully, order must be provided in the classrooms beforehand.
Therefore, it proves that learning and order or instruction needs to come
together. This relationship between classroom management and student learning
makes the issue of classroom management of critical importance.
In the past, classroom management was
always assumed as the same with discipline. Previous researchers mostly focused
teachers’ reactions to students’ misbehaviour in their research. However, they claimed
that those variables are not the same. Classroom management is much more than
controlling the students and preventing misbehaviour. Evertson, Emmer, Sanford
and Clements (1983) stated that classroom management is wider than the concept
of student discipline including all the things teachers were supposed to do to
enhance students’ involvement and cooperation in classroom tasks and to build a
productive learning environment. Once again, Brophy and Good (2003) states that
classroom management is different from a discipline plan as it includes the
teachers’ beliefs and values, as they relate to discipline. He suggested that
there are mainly three aspects- the physical environment of the classroom, the
amount of teacher preparation and ways in which the lesson is presented- which influence
the classroom management.
According to Kounin (1970), classroom
management dimension move from reactive to proactive teacher behaviours. Principles
discovered by Kounin shows that effective classroom managers succeed not so
much because they are good at handling problems when it occurs, but because
they are good at maximizing the time students spend in completing the tasks
given. They are good at preventing interruption from happening. Their focus is
not on prevention of misbehaviour but to create an efficient learning
environment, to prepare high- quality lessons, other than to monitor their students’
performance.
Similarly, Brophy (1986) defined
classroom management as a teacher’s efforts to build and maintain the classroom
as an effective environment for teaching and learning processes. Good classroom
management implies good instruction. “All research results show that in
addition to dealing with the misbehaviours and problems effectively, to prevent
them from occurring is an important aspect of efficient classroom management”
(Brophy, 1986, p. 6). According to him also, management and instruction are much
related to each other as instruction is involved in much of the activity that
would typically be described as classroom management such as classroom routines
for activities. By increasing the time when students are involved in the
academic activities is one of the roles of successful classroom managers. Not only
that, they also maximize their students’ opportunities to learn academic
content, and these results were shown in the students’ achievement from the
test (Brophy, 1982). In another study, he describes the ways of creating an
effective environment for teaching and learning with the help of classroom
management techniques, and he focuses on establishing an effective management
system, maintaining attention and task engagement, and pursuing broader student
socialization goals (Brophy, 1986).
In addition, Johnson, Rice, Edgington,
and Williams (2005) supports Kounin’s argument about the proactive classroom
management by stating out that being proactive in behaviour management from the
start is much easier and more productive than reacting when misbehaviours after
occurrence. They defined classroom management as “a wide-array of proactive,
well-established, and consistent techniques and practices teachers employ to
create an atmosphere conducive to learning” (Johnson et al., 2005, p. 2).
Randolph and Evertson (1994) proposed “orchestration” to be the more
appropriate definition for classroom management. The teacher is expected to
orchestrate the classroom where proactive and reactive strategies are included,
the students’ agenda and needs are catered for, less paperwork is required and
more reflection and discussion take place (Randolph & Evertson, 1994).
Akbaba and Altun (1998) also defined classroom management with the phrase
“classroom climate” and stated that classroom management relates to prepare
specific rules, establishing a warm climate, and maintaining an orderly
environment with problem solving strategies.
Like many educators, Martin and Yin
(1997) supported that classroom management is a powerful dimension of teacher
effectiveness. Effective student behaviour management has always been an issue
in the mind of most educators. Thus, effective classroom management plays a
significant role for constructive educational environments for both learners
and educators. To clarify about what classroom management is or is not, Martin,
Yin, and Baldwin (1998) offered that although often used in the same meaning,
the terms classroom management and discipline are not synonymous. Discipline
classically refers to the structures and rules for student behaviour and attempts
to guarantee that students obey those rules. “Classroom management, on the
other hand, is a broader, umbrella term describing teacher efforts to watch
over a multitude of activities in the classroom including learning, social
interaction, and student behaviour” (Martin, Yin, & Baldwin, 1998, p.1).
They defined classroom management as a comprehensive concept that consists of
three independent dimensions which are the instructional management, people
management, and behaviour management. The instructional management dimension is
based on the daily routines of the classroom and allocation of materials. The
people management dimension is centred on the ways of the teachers to get to
know the students and how they view their relationship with the students. The
final dimension, behaviour management, is somewhat similar to the concept of
classroom discipline but differs in that it focuses on a teacher’s pre-planned
methods of preventing misbehaviour, rather than simply on their reaction to it
once it occurs.” (Martin, Yin, & Baldwin, 1998, p.2)
As it is suggested by many researchers,
classroom management is one of the leading factors which influence the learning
process since it is significant in facilitating it. Effective classroom management
strategies are crucial in creating efficient learning environments for the
learners. In their meta-analysis research, Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1993)
found out that direct influences like classroom management affect student
learning more than indirect influences such as policies. They made an analysis
of 50 years of research combining 11.000 statistical research findings from the
content analysis, the research synthesis, and the survey of experts and they
obtained an average score for each of the 28 categories. Classroom management
included teachers’ “with-it-ness,” learners’ responsibilities, group alerting,
and smooth transitions. Then they listed the categories from most to least
influential. At the top the list were stated the three variables which were the
classroom management, metacognitive processes and home environment and these
variables are the greatest influence on students’ learning. The research also
indicated that effective classroom management increases student engagement,
decreases disruptive behaviours and makes good use of instructional time.
Constructive student and teacher social interactions also have a familiar
effect on school learning. The quantity of the interactions contributes to
students’ sense of self-esteem and builds a sense of membership in the class
and school (Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1993).
In the study about the differences
between the effective teachers and ineffective teachers, Evertson, Emmer and
Brophy (1980) compared math teachers- six of them were identified as
ineffective and three were identified as highly effective teachers basing on
the student learning gains in achievement test and on the basis of students
attitudes measured by the questionnaire given at the end of the year to each
teacher’s students. These teachers’ classrooms were observed by the objective
observers who had no knowledge about the students’ achievement level. Although
the results showed that there was no significant difference on the classroom behaviour
between two groups of teachers, there were reliable differences on classroom management
variables. Teachers labelled as highly-effective were more successful in
managing the classroom activities and routines.
Marzano and Marzano (2003) also stated
that classroom management is a key to high student achievement. In their
research, they found out that teachers' actions in their classrooms have twice
the impact on students’ achievement as do school guideline regarding
curriculum, assessment, and community involvement. Effective classroom manager
provides effective instruction, so management is an integral part of learning
process.
In 1976, Brophy and Evertson also
reported that the results of one of the major studies in classroom management.
Their sample included some 30 elementary teachers whose students had showed
consistently better than expected gains in academic achievement. The comparison
group consisted of 38 teachers whose performance was more typical. Although the
study focused on a wide variety of teaching behaviours, classroom management
surfaced as one of the critical aspects of effective teaching. Moreover, studies showed that there was a
positive correlation between teachers’ effectiveness and students’ achievement.
There are many characteristics such as well-organized, active, strongly academically
oriented, and managing efficiently which overall could be defined as an
effective teacher. Many studies have demonstrated that classroom management is
an influential attribute in teacher effectiveness (Raptakis, 2005). The more
academically effective teachers in those studies generally had better organized
classrooms and fewer behaviour problems (Evertson et al., 1980). Highly
effective teachers made good use of instruction time by providing
task-engagement for all the students with the help of variable and challenging
activities. Effective teachers can multitask and have an elevated awareness of
all actions in the classroom while solving minor problems and distraction (Good
& Brophy, 1997). In well-organized classes, the successful teachers did not
have to react as often to behaviour problems, because such problems are quite
rare.
More effective teachers were seen as
more effective classroom managers. They were more consistent in rule
enforcement, monitored better, accepted less disturbance, had fewer
interruptions, and had more efficient transitions. They are also perceived to
have greater confidence and enthusiasm, less anxiety, and to be more
encouraging and receptive to student input (Emmer, Evertson & Brophy,
1980). Laut (1999) found in his analysis of research in the area of classroom
management that effective classroom management is often identical with being an
effective teacher. Creating a safe and orderly classroom environment optimizes the
opportunity for students to learn and teachers to teach. Classroom management
may increase or decrease the value of teaching and learning basing on its
appropriateness (Laut, 1999).
While assessing the self-efficacy
beliefs of teachers, classroom management constitutes one of the six main
domains of teacher functioning. Teacher efficacy has been related to teachers’ behaviours
in the classroom, affecting their levels of effort, aspiration, planning, and
organization, and their persistence and resilience in complicated conditions
(Gordon, 2001). Specifically, teachers with a higher sense of efficacy tend to
be more enthusiastic about teaching and committed to teaching. In the study
about dimensions of teacher self-efficacy carried out by Gordon (2001),
classroom management domain is the one that teachers had the lowest confidence
about; which means that this is a major obstacle for effective learning
environments.
STUDIES ON CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Using ABCC (Attitudes and Beliefs about
Classroom Control) Inventory, Martin and his colleagues investigated the
relationship between teachers’ perception of classroom management and other
factors such as gender, age, classroom management training, class size,
graduate studies, teacher characteristics and school setting. While exploring
the classroom management styles of teachers, in these studies the researchers
sometimes have come across the significant relationship between the classroom
management approach and other factors, sometimes not. These studies have
particular importance for this study as they show the important variables
affecting the classroom management style.
By using ICMS (Inventory of Classroom
Management Style), Martin and Baldwin (1994) investigated the classroom
management approaches of 238 teachers in a study on the impact of teachers’
experience levels on classroom management practices. As a result, they found
that novice teachers were significantly more interventionist than were
experienced teachers. In another study, examining gender differences, Martin
and Yin (1997) discovered that females were significantly less interventionist
than were males regarding instructional management and regarding student
management. However, in a different study, Martin, Yin, and Baldwin (1997)
found no gender differences related to any of the classroom management
approaches.
Martin, Yin, and Baldwin (1998) investigated
the relationship between classroom management attitudes and classroom
management training, class size and graduate study. Data were collected from
281 certified teachers, who were primarily working in urban schools, and were
female. Most of the teachers were Caucasian (69.9%) and they had an overall
average of 14.35 years of teaching experience. Results show significant
differences on the Instructional Management subscale of the ABCC regarding
classroom management training as well as significant positive correlations
between average class enrolment and teachers' scores on the People Management
and Behaviour Management subscales of the ABCC. A one-way analysis of variance
did not yield significant differences between the teachers who had enrolled in
graduate courses in the last 6 months and those who did not. Although class
size has likely a direct impact on the nature of instruction as well as
teacher-student instruction, the results of this study showed no significant
difference in teachers’ classroom management styles regarding to class size.
Martin and Yin (1999) also examined the
classroom management differences between teachers in rural settings and those
in urban settings and they found that urban teachers were significantly more
interventionist than rural teachers in terms of people management. In another
study, Martin and Shoho (2000) investigated the differences in the classroom
management approaches of traditionally certified and alternatively certified
teachers. The results revealed that teachers in alternative certification
programs were significantly more interventionist (i.e., controlling) than were
traditionally certified teachers regarding instructional management. However,
these alternatively certified teachers were not more interventionist regarding
people management or behaviour management.
Lastly, Martin, Yin, and Mayall (2006)
conducted a study to investigate the difference classroom management styles of
teachers regarding their classroom management training, teaching experience,
and gender. Data were collected from 163 participants via the Attitudes and
Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) Inventory and a demographic questionnaire.
Results revealed significant differences between males and females and between
novice and experienced teachers on Instruction Management subscale scores.
Females scored more interventionist than males and experienced teachers scored
significantly more controlling than the less experienced counterparts.
Ritter (2003) studied the classroom
management beliefs and practices of middle-school teachers. The purpose of her
study was to determine if there was difference in classroom management beliefs
and practices of teachers regarding to years of teaching experience or type of
teaching certification. The sample consists of 97 teachers including
traditionally certified expert teachers, alternatively certified expert
teachers, traditionally certified beginning teachers and alternatively
certified beginning teachers. As instrument, the researcher employed ABCC Inventory,
classroom observations, teacher interviews and focus group discussions. The
results of the questionnaire indicated that neither source of certification nor
experience level alone affect teachers’ orientation to classroom management.
However, teachers with traditional certification and many years of experience
exert significantly less control over classroom activities and students’ behaviours
than do the other group with less experience level and different certification
type.
Shin (2004) studied the classroom behaviour
management beliefs and strategies of teachers by making a cross-cultural
analysis. The purpose of her study was to compare the beliefs of teachers on
classroom behaviour management strategies for students in urban public high
schools between the USA and the Republic of Korea. Researcher employed three
different questionnaires for the teachers -ABCC, SBQ and Teacher Survey- to
collect data from 116 American and 167 Korean teachers. The results of the
study showed that there were statistically significant cross-cultural
differences in teachers’ instructional and behavioural management styles. The
results, inferred from this study indicated that more American teachers tended
to control their instructional strategies and student behaviours than Korean
high school teachers did; namely American teachers had more behaviourist
standpoint in management.
Laut (1999) compared the classroom
management approaches of classroom teachers, intern teachers and senior level
practicum students by using the ICMS (Inventory Classroom Management Style).
The results indicated that while senior level practicum students were not
interventionist, intern teachers were found to be interventionist; and the more
experienced teachers were not interventionist again.
Gibbes (2004) again investigated if
there was a difference between the attitudes and beliefs of traditionally and
alternatively certified teachers regarding classroom management. By employing
the ABCC Inventory on 114 high school teachers, independent t-test was used to
compare the results of two groups on three classroom management dimensions and
they were people, behaviour, and instructional. Results revealed that in all
three dimensions, there was no statistically significant difference between the
attitudes and beliefs of alternatively certified and traditionally certified
teachers. The overall findings indicated that two groups of teachers held
similar attitudes towards classroom management.
Garrett (2005) also studied the student-centred
and teacher-centred classroom management strategies by employing qualitative
research methods. The purpose of her study was to explore the classroom
management strategies used by three teachers who apply student-centred approach
to their instruction and to examine the relationship between their managerial
and instructional approaches. As a result, she found that the way teachers
think about the relationship between their instructional and managerial
approaches was influenced by what they see as the overall goal of classroom
management. While two of them have a classroom management strategy consistent
with their way of instruction, one does not.
Foxworthy (2006) utilized the
qualitative research techniques to investigate teachers’ beliefs about
classroom management and the importance of this aspects of teaching. Interviews
with the teachers, observations of classes and field notes revealed that
participants believed in respect and the notion that students’ needs must come
first. Also, the important result of
this study for us is that aspects of their beliefs and strategies about
classroom management have changed since they began teaching, namely with
experience of teaching. Participants have two explanations for the reason of
this change which is gaining experiences or gaining knowledge through
professional development.
Apart from the general studies on
classroom management, some researchers studies on the classroom management
styles of teachers. Og (2003) investigated if the teachers’ classroom
management approach for three dimensions people, instruction and behaviour
dimensions change according to their teaching experience, gender and their
working places. The data were gathered from the 178 teachers working in Adana
through the ABCC inventory translated into Turkish by the researcher. The
results of the study indicated that only the instructional dimension changes in
relation with the variable of teaching experience. According to the results,
teachers who are more experienced than eight years are more interventionist in
instructional dimension than the less experienced ones.
Similarly to Terzi (2001) who made a
study to identify the opinions of teachers on classroom management styles- authoritarian,
democratic or laizess-faire. The sample of the study included 736 teachers
working in 73 schools in Eskisehir. The data were gathered through a
questionnaire called as Classroom Management Attitudes of Teachers prepared by
the researcher. The results indicated that teachers older than 51 years old
have more tendencies to have an authoritarian classroom management style than
the younger ones. No other significant differences have been confronted in this
study in terms of teachers’ classroom management styles and gender or
Certification Sources of teachers.
Duman, Gelisli and Cetin (2002)
investigated the approaches adopted by teachers to establish discipline in
their classrooms, based on (529) students’ opinions. In this study the aim was
to identify the classroom management approaches the teachers use in different
high schools in different socio- economic districts of Ankara. The results
indicated that the teachers used Interventionist approach (teacher-centred)
rather than Preventive-Constructive (student-centred) approach, and they acted
differently according to the classroom and major, and they adopted different
classroom management approaches according to the high school. Although Duman’s
and his colleagues’ study is about high school teachers, it is important for us
in terms of its results.
STUDENT SATISFACTION
Roberts (1969) stated that if the school can
provide a satisfying, growth-producing climate, this decreases the possibility
that the child will later develop any serious psychosocial disorder. Thus,
satisfaction is a variable of significant interest to researchers concerned
with the planning of optimal growth-enhancing environments. Walberg (1969) claimed
that the classroom environments must not only be intellectually challenging to
encourage growth in students’ achievement but they must also be compact and
satisfying in order to encourage "non-cognitive" growth. Cowen (1977)
in his review, highlighted that adjustment, adapt self-concept and well-being
variables in the mental satisfaction was not specific certainly room on the
list for student satisfaction as one of researched in studies employing
analysis. Relatively some research has been conducted in classrooms by applying
satisfaction as a dependent variable.
Trickett and Moos (1974) examined the
relationship between discern environment of the high school classroom and
students’ satisfaction. Significant relationships were found between the
environment and various areas of satisfaction. Students expressed greater
satisfaction in classrooms characterized with high student involvement,
personal student-teacher relationship, innovative teaching methods, and by
clarity of rules for classroom behaviour. In regard to classroom social
environment and students’ mood, students felt more secure and interested in
classrooms which built the relationship dimensions of involvement, affiliation,
and teacher support. Students reported feeling less satisfied and angrier in
classrooms which were low in teacher support and order and organization.
Teacher support was identified as a particularly important dimension in high
school classrooms. The results of this study were discussed in terms of their
implications for planning and change. Mclean (1976) emphasized that the
priority variables to be classrooms as the units of Davidson (1976) found that
sixth-grade classrooms high on teacher support were associated with high levels
of student satisfaction and achievement. In addition, classrooms high in order
and organization also contributed to high student satisfaction. Nielson and
Moos (1978) reported that students were generally more satisfied in classroom
climates high in involvement, affiliation, and teacher support. It is proved
that student satisfaction is an important variable to consider in the planning
of optimal environments and those different classroom environments do have a
relationship with students’ satisfaction. The research suggested that
classrooms high on student involvement, affiliation, teacher support, and order
and organization generally relate positively to high student satisfaction.
Both the definitions of classroom
management and the students’ satisfaction prove the crucial role of an
effective management for successful learning environments direct us the
conclusion that researches in educational settings have to enrich our
literature in this area.
